Table of Contents
Islam
Islam is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which adherents believe to be the literal word of God (Allah) as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century CE, and on the hadith, records of Muhammad's sayings and actions. Islam is practiced by an estimated 1.9 billion people worldwide, making it the second-largest religion by adherents.1) Core beliefs and practices are organized (in Sunni formulations) around the Five Pillars: the declaration of faith (shahada), prayer (salat), almsgiving (zakat), fasting during Ramadan (sawm), and pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj); Shia Islam frames obligatory practice somewhat differently. The religion's historical and theological relationship to Christianity and Judaism is a recurring subject of both academic study and confessional debate; see islam-abrahamic-relationship-debate.
The two largest branches, Sunni and Shia Islam, diverge primarily over the question of rightful succession to Muhammad's leadership of the early Muslim community, a split with continuing theological and political significance. Smaller traditions include Sufism (often described as a mystical dimension of Islam rather than a separate branch), Ibadism, and various reformist and revivalist movements. Islamic legal and theological scholarship has produced multiple schools of jurisprudence (madhahib) that differ on matters of law and practice.
Current State
Islam today encompasses a wide range of doctrinal, legal, and cultural expressions across more than 50 majority-Muslim countries and substantial minority populations elsewhere.2) Contemporary discourse within and about Islam addresses questions including the interpretation of scripture in modern contexts, the relationship between religious law (sharia) and civil governance, the role of women, approaches to religious pluralism, and the diversity of practice across regions and communities. Academic, theological, and political disagreement persists over how representative any single interpretation is of the religion as a whole; see islam-representative-interpretation-debate.
The relationship between Islam and other Abrahamic traditions, including the role of rabbinic texts such as the Talmud in comparative religious scholarship, is itself a subject of differing scholarly and confessional viewpoints, ranging from emphasis on shared theological lineage to emphasis on doctrinal distinction; see islam-christianity-comparative-viewpoint and islam-judaism-comparative-viewpoint.
For historical background on Islam's origins, expansion, and major developments, see islam-history.
Viewpoints
- Traditionalist/orthodox viewpoint - Holds that the Quran is the literal, unaltered word of God and that the hadith literature, as authenticated through established chains of transmission, provides binding guidance for belief and practice. See islam-traditionalist-viewpoint.
- Reformist/modernist viewpoint - Argues that Islamic texts and law should be reinterpreted in light of historical context and contemporary circumstances, often distinguishing between core theological commitments and culturally contingent legal rulings. See islam-reformist-viewpoint.
- Sufi/mystical viewpoint - Emphasizes inner, experiential, and esoteric dimensions of faith alongside or in some readings above outward legal observance. See islam-sufi-viewpoint.
- Salafi/literalist viewpoint - Advocates a return to practice modeled closely on the first generations of Muslims (the Salaf), often rejecting later theological and legal developments as innovations. See islam-salafi-viewpoint.
- Secular/critical academic viewpoint - Applies historical-critical methods to the Quran and hadith comparable to those used in biblical scholarship, including source criticism and questions about textual formation, often disputed by traditionalist scholars. See islam-critical-academic-viewpoint.
Controversies
- Disputes over the authenticity and dating of early Quranic manuscripts have prompted ongoing academic controversy regarding traditional accounts of the text's compilation. See islam-quranic-manuscript-dating-controversy.
- The depiction of Muhammad in visual art and media has been the subject of recurring international controversy, including legal and violent incidents. See islam-depictions-of-muhammad-controversy.
- The application of sharia-based family and criminal law in various jurisdictions has generated sustained political and legal controversy domestically and internationally. See islam-sharia-application-controversy.